Aetiology
Possible causes include:
- pulmonary venous congestion due to left ventricular failure in the presence of increased afterload, for example in aortic stenosis or coarctation of the aorta
- an excessive preload - for example an abnormally high venous return due to a patent ductus or a ventricular septal defect
- obstruction of the pulmonary venous return, for example cor triatriatum
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